Cradle of Chinese Civilisation

Original piece: 《什么是黄河？》
Produced by Institute for Planets (星球研究所)
Written by 风子
Translated by Kelvin Kwok
Posted with permission from Institute for Planets

The surging power of a surging nation

Most people have heard of the Yellow River of China, but few truly know its brilliance.

The river travels across vast distance. Close to its origin, Yellow River is a clear and gentle stream.

In the midstream, the giant river courses through breathtaking sceneries.

As it charges on, it leaves behind a serpentine trail in the downstream.

Yellow River is a perennial witness of time.
It observed all changes in the landscape throughout the last 3.7 million years.

And saw the rise of a grand civilisation that spanned five millennia.

To the Chinese people, it is the spiritual stronghold that holds the nation together in its most dire moments.

The wind is howling, the horses screaming
And the Yellow River roaring
……
Defend our homeland!
Defend the Yellow River!
Defend the Northern Plains!
Defend our country!

风在吼，马在叫
黄河在咆哮
……
保卫家乡！保卫黄河！
保卫华北！保卫全中国！

Yellow River Cantana (7th movement: Defend the Yellow River) by Guang Weiran
《黄河大合唱》第七乐章《保卫黄河》– 光未然

What gives Yellow River its unmatched brilliance?

The Institute for Planets sees it as a strong bond that strings up the Chinese civilisation in time and space. Being the second longest river in China, it overcomes all barriers and runs entwined with all on its way to the sea. And in doing so, it shapes a nation that is always surging with vibrance.

1. The traverse

Over the last 65 million years, tectonic collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate had created a unique topography in China where the west is much more elevated than the east. It also led to deformation of the inland which, together with movements of the Pacific Plate, ruptured the North China Plain. A series of rift valleys and basins were hence formed sequentially.

Fast forward to 3.7 million years ago, each of these depressions had by then gathered sufficient water to become lakes of various sizes, which were relatively dispersed and lacked any form of connection. At this stage, the Yellow River was still no where to be seen.

As tectonic movements persisted, the Tibetan Plateau and Loess Plateau kept rising higher. This natural process continued to enlarge the elevation difference between the west and east, much like a divine force holding an enormous pot of water high up in the sky and still lifting it further.

As a consequence, the previously disconnected lake systems started to invade into each other’s territories down the slopes. This initiated a series of lake and river concatenation on a massive scale on North China Plain.

By about 1.8 million years ago, the river channel between Lanzhou and Hetao (literally ‘river loop’) was the very first section to take form on the western stretches of Loess Plateau.

Water systems merged together by this included the Lanzhou Basin, Zhongwei Basin, Yinchuan Basin and Hetao Basin.

There were numerous gorges engraved along the way, including the Bapan Gorge, Chaijia Gorge, Sangyuan Gorge, Wujin Gorge, Hongshan Gorge, Heishan Gorge, Hu Gorge and Qingtong Gorge.

In Central China, rivers running across the northern regions of Fenwei Basin carved out a northbound path over time through the Loess Plateau, which eventually met up with the Hetao Basin around 1.2 million years ago. This formed the Shanxi-Shaanxi section we see today that demarcates the two provinces.

Happening simultaneously was the westward invasion of rivers flowing by the eastern foothills of Taiheng Mountains. Approximately 1.2 million years ago, one of these rivers finally penetrated the Xiao Mountains and carved out the Sanmen Gorge, thereby making a way out of the Fenwei Basin into the North China Plain.

This breach allowed the vast paleolake to gush down the heights through the Sanmen Gorge and embark on a one way journey to the east.

As such, a new river that first traverses the Loess Plateau and North China Plain then dashes towards the sea in the far east was officially born. This was the Yellow River in its adolescence.

The young river was still rather short, spanning only about 60% of the current length. Moreover, the upstream travelled mainly through dry areas in the northwest, where water source was relatively scarce.

Therefore, it was still far from becoming what we know of the Yellow River — a majestic river with impressive length and turbulent waters. What it needed was to extend further away from the sea and climb even higher up the mountains.

2. The expansion

Approximately 1.2 million years ago, the Amne Machin (also known as Mount Jishi) standing between Xunhua Basin in Qinghai and Linxia Basin in Gansu was cut open by Yellow River. This opened up a new route for the upstream flowing across Linxia Basin, which then changed course and entered the Tibetan Plateau through Jishi Gorge.

Once on the loose, Yellow River met almost no resistance as it raged across the Tibetan Plateau, carving out a chain of gorges including the Songba Gorge, Ashgang Gorge, Longyang Gorge, Lagan Gorge, Yehu Gorge and Lajia Gorge.

As it progressed, it linked up Guide Basin, Gonghe Basin, Xinghai-Tongde Basin and Zoige Basin.

But it was not until about 10,000 years ago when Yellow River finally cut through the Duoshi Gorge did the Gyaring Lake-Ngoring Lake systems become incorporated into the grand river.

That marked the completion of modern Yellow River system.

Through diversion and expansion that lasted more than 1.2 million years, Yellow River not only extended its length by almost 2000 kilometres…

But also acquired a number tributaries in the upstream for replenishment, including Qiemuqu, Hei River, Bai River and Jiaqu.

All these water sources upstream of Jishi Gorge contribute up to around 40% of the entire basin volume. If tributaries further downstream are included, particularly Huangshui River and Tao River which also originate from Tibetan Plateau, the sections up to Lanzhou would make up for 61.7% of the total runoff of Yellow River.

The Tibetan Plateau, standing on average 4000 metres above sea level, has clearly become the predominant drainage basin for Yellow River.

As Li Bai, the renowned poet of Tang Dynasty, once exclaimed:

(Do you not see) the Yellow River coming down from the sky,
Rushing to the sea and never come back?

(君不见)
黄河之水天上来
奔流到海不复回？

Invitation to Wine by Li Bai (Translation by Li Yuanchong)
《将进酒》李白 （李渊冲 翻译)

As Yellow River expanded, it gained more power to reshape the land. It transformed the Shanxi-Shaanxi river channel into Shanxi-Shaanxi Grand Canyon.

With constant erosion, the Hukou Waterfall slowly retreated away from Yumenkou, leaving behind the ‘Ten-mile Dragon Trough (十里龙槽)’ that exhibits a valley-within-valley terrain.

More importantly, formation of Yellow River basin and the coinciding climate changes have gradually drained a number of ancient lakes and marshes, which were initially connected to the basin through various tributaries. The discharge at Zoige Paleolake had turned it into Zoige Wetland.

The Sanmen Paleolake in Fenwei Basin is pretty much nonexistent today. Whatever remained had evolved into the Yuncheng Salt Lake…

And various alluvial plains, including Zhongwei Plain, Yinchuan Plain, Hetao Plain, Weihe Plain and Fenhe Plain.

In the meantime, silt coming from the upstream had further flattened the North China Plain.

In a way, Yellow River managed to stitch all the largest alluvial plains in China together.

Since all these plains were mostly located in warm climate zones, they provided perfect conditions for societal development in the age of agriculture.

Everything was set for the coming to be of a grand civilisation.

3. The civilisation

The first cultures to emerge along the Yellow River basin were scattered around the midstream, dotting the Weihe Plain, Fenhe Plain, Liluohe Plain, Taiheng Mountains and eastern foothills of Mount Song.

Agriculture developed rapidly here as the climate was warm and humid, and the land was very fertile and easy to farm. To maintain a stable food source, our ancestors domesticated several crops that did not require excessive attention, including foxtail millet and broomcorn millet. This guaranteed the basic needs for the survival of a population.

And to have a ceiling, caves and crypts were extensively built on loess-covered terraces.

When all the basic needs were met, our ancestors turned to leisure and art. By the middle phase of Yangshao culture (~4000-3500 BC), Miaodigou settlers living near Sanmen Gorge had already had the skills to produce burnished potteries adorned with red and black paint that ran in artistic geometry patterns with rhythmic sensations. These products were apparently very popular back then.

Their influence on painted pottery design reached as far as Qinghai in the west, East China Sea in the east, Yangtze River basin in the south and Mongolian-Liaoning regions in the north. The radiating charm of Miaodigou culture is said to have facilitated the very first cultural integration in prehistoric China.

But as the population continued to grow, competition exacerbated and the pressure on survival became real. Around the midstream, population density was the highest in Guanzhong, Jinnan and Yuxi regions. To fight for resources, heavily armed citadels were built and wars were fought.

Others who did not want to be involved dispersed into surrounding regions. One group which travelled to the west along Wei River entered the Ganqing region in the Yellow River upstream. There they merged with local ethnic groups and became the Majiayao culture. These people not only inherited the essence of Miaodigou’s painted pottery production, but went further and perfected the craftsmanship. Almost all their unearthed potteries were brightly coloured with smooth linings and complex embellishments. They had obviously outshined their predecessors in pottery production.

Another settlement that moved northwards along Shanxi-Shaanxi Yellow River made contact with indigenous people of Hetao region, who were distributed in the southern foothills of Yin Mountain-Daqing Mountain ranges.

In downstream regions of Yellow River, the people of Dawenkou culture were leading equally well-off lives near the Tai-Yi Mountains. They were very open to Yangshao culture from the west and Hongshan culture from the north, and eventually evolved into the famous Longshan culture. The black pottery long-handle goblet was a very well known artefact unearthed in the Chengziya ruins in Zhangqiu, Jinan. With a bowl thickness of an egg shell, the goblet is widely regarded as a modern creation, if not better.

By integrating surrounding cultures, settlements in the Yellow River midstream nurtured a new school of thoughts by around 2500 BC. People living there started observing astronomical phenomena and seasonal changes in order to improve farming efficiency.

They even created a primitive form of writings that were similar to the later oracle bone scripts we all know about.

It is generally accepted that various ancient cultures along the Yellow River basin made the first entry into early phases of civilisations in around 3300-2000 BC. Also rising during the same period were the Liangzhu culture and Shijiahe culture emerging in the downstream and midstream of Yangtze River respectively, as well as the Baodun culture settling on the Chengdu Plain. These cultures were as advanced as those around the Yellow River basin.

Ancient civilisations were enjoying their first spring then as they blossomed all over China.

So what made the cultures along Yellow River basin stand out from the rest?

Between 2200-2000 BC, there was a global cooling event. In addition to a sharp temperature drop, summer monsoons were significantly weakened and rainbands at the monsoon front retreated to the south. While northeast and northwest regions suffered from severe droughts, North China and Jiangnan regions were hit by increased rainfalls and floods.

Because of that, Laohushan culture in Inner Mongolia, Qijia culture in Gansu-Qinghai regions, as well as Liangzhu culture, Shijiahe culture, Shandong Longshan culture along Yangtze River all fell victim to either life-threatening droughts or deadly floods. They never made it further.

On the contrary, cultures residing in Guanzhong-Jinnan-Yuxi regions in the midstream of Yellow River seized the chance to become the centre of civilisation. Survival of the fittest seemed to have settled the fierce competition on this great arena and decided on the few rising stars of Chinese civilisation.

*The impact of climate change on the decline of numerous cultures 4000 years ago was first proposed by renowned archaeologist Su Bingqi. The decline could also be impacted by many other factors, including demography, society, economy and religion.

How did they survive?
One reason was that the midstream of Yellow River was sitting right in the centre of China, therefore it was not as dry as northwest and Inner Mongolian regions, yet did not have to deal with the horrible floods as did its southern neighbours.

More importantly, there was extensive formation of foothill elevation and alluvial fans along the Yellow River, which acted as a Noah’s Ark that always floated above water level. Also crucial were the drainage systems that prevented serious damages to the settlements. Civilisation was thus well preserved.

This was where Yu the Great assembled his legendary flood control team, which swiftly restored regional safety and agricultural activities. This catalysed the birth of a kingdom with widespread territory control in the midstream of Yellow River, which was later named Xia — the very first dynasty in Chinese history.

With that as a foothold, our ancestors began to spread out into even larger alluvial plains, which provided ample space and resources for development. The Chinese civilisation finally gained traction and started to display its power.

It built grand palaces.

And massive cities.

It welcomed talents, and adopted different technologies and cultures. One after another, groundbreaking advancements were made. There was bronze smelting.

Writing.

As well as rites, music and ceremonial systems.

With the consecutive rise and fall of Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the Chinese civilisation gradually matured. Then in 221BC, when Qin engulfed the six other warring states and united the entire civilisation, mountains and plains further beyond the Yellow River basin were granted the precious opportunity of full scale development.

Large number of lakes and marshes on the downstream floodplains were drained to make way for new farms and villages.

In the midstream, all the loess tablelands, ridges and hillocks on Loess Plateau were transformed into terraced fields.

Far out in the upstream, Zhongwei Plain, Yinchuan Plain and Hetao Plain were all rich and fertile lands owing to Yellow River’s generous irrigation. Conditions here were so optimal that these plains were praised the ‘second Jiangnan beyond the Great Wall (塞外江南)‘.

Even the river valleys and basins on Tibetan Plateau were recruited for planting crops.

The entire Yellow River basin enjoyed uninterrupted development, which was accompanied by continuous population growth and prospering economy. It also nurtured two very special cities, namely Xi’an on the Weihe Plain.

And Luoyang on the Yiluohe Plain.

For more than 1000 years, they were the alternating capital cities of China between Qin and Tang Dynasties. Under their leadership, the Chinese civilisation reached the peak of its glory.

4. The rebirth

This is the Yellow River.
As the cradle of Chinese civilisation, it offered everything possible to nurture the land and the people.

However, continuous agricultural activities on the Loess Plateau since the Spring and Autumn Period had led to massive reduction in natural vegetation coverage along the river basin, and this resulted in severe erosion.

Loess Plateau was sliced up into shattered pieces, leaving behind countless ditches and gullies.

Sand and silt were constantly scraped off as the Yellow River marched through the undulating land.

Surging from the west Yellow River breaches the Kunlun Mountains,
roaring for thousands of miles before it reaches Longmen

黄河西来决昆仑，咆哮万里触龙门

Cross Not the River by Li Bai
李白《公无渡河》

Over time, sedimentation in the river bed turned Yellow River into a hanging stream.

During flood seasons, or whenever spontaneous floods hit, sloppy defence measures were a major reason for breaches in the river banks and potential diversion. Historically, there were more than 1590 breaches, 26 moderate diversions and 5 to 6 major diversions in the downstream between 602 BC and 1949.

Diversions were always catastrophic. Every time it occurred, countless farmlands, villages and towns would be submerged, and hundreds of thousands of civilians displaced. Imagine ‘a barren land that stretches thousands of miles (赤地千里)’ in front of you. This also made Yellow River the nation’s sorrow.

Fortunately, Yellow River today is no longer the raging monster that tends to flood, nor the sandy river always overloaded with sediment. Over the past few decades, a series of hydraulic engineering projects targeting the up- and midstream have been completed.

With these projects in place, we are now able to gate the silt with dams, and flush it out when necessary using man-made flood peaks.

In addition, afforestation and other measures such as returning farms to forests and grasslands were implemented on Loess Plateau and other locations.

As vegetation coverage increases substantially, erosion problem is greatly alleviated.

Sediment transport in Yellow River also shows a plunging trend, returning to its natural state 3000 years ago.

The title of ‘river with largest sediment transport’ is now given away to the Ganges. In fact, the drop in sediment transport has been so dramatic that, with the concurrent rise in sea level due to global warming, the Yellow River Delta is facing erosion problem.

The Yellow River that was once a great menace to civilians living nearby no longer floods frequently, thanks to the aforementioned control measures and construction of modern dikes.

Today, the tamed river flows gently.

Occasional floods are usually well under control, and any damages are minimised. This is also why it seldom appears on headlines nowadays.

But still, whenever we cross the Yellow River on a highway bridge.

Dash above the river on a high-speed train.

Or fly past it on a plane.

We cannot help but be absorbed in the enchanting beauty of a river so grand and indispensable to us.
This is the surging power that nurtured a surging nation.

Production Team
Text: 风子
Photos: 凰壑
Maps: 陈景逸
Design: 王申雯
Review: 王长春, 云舞空城
Feature photo: 余明

Expert review
Prof. An Chengbang, Lanzhou Unversity (安成邦教授, 兰州大学)
Asst. Prof. Hu Zhenbo, Lanzhou University (胡振波副教授, 兰州大学)

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…The End…